Our findings suggest that various policy instruments are at different stages of implementation, with some having specific targets and measurement criteria, such as the Swachh Bharat Mission, while others set out a preliminary dialogue for India's circular economy, such as the National Resource Efficiency Policy. We also identified multi-faceted policies relevant to plastics, such as the Plastic Waste Management Rules, as part of the Solid Waste Management Rules, and cross-sectoral linkages between the Steel Recycling Policy and Extended Producer Responsibility Regulations. The absence of an overarching circular economy policy framework for India notwithstanding, the findings suggest certain circular economy actions be more advanced than others through the policy instruments we reviewed.

The circular economy presents itself as an opportunity to take a holistic approach to plastics, to reduce, reuse, remanufacture, reprocess, and recycle plastics throughout production, circulation, and consumption (Jiao and Boons, 2014; Kirchherr, Reike, and Hekkert, 2017; Chizaryfard, Trucco, and Nuur, 2020). FICCI (2020) envisages that the circular economy will enable significant value recovery from India's packaging plastics, which currently amount to losses of almost USD 133 billion due to inefficient design, handling, and disposal. Micro-plastic use, recovery, and seepage through drainage systems, land, and water are glaring issues facing environmental management of plastics in India.

Despite the need to take a systemic approach, it has been observed that policy initiatives have often focused on 'end of pipe' (waste management) and upstream (material used at the production stage) processes (Pamlin and Enarsson, 2019; Iacovidou, Hahladakis, and Purnell, 2020). India’s policy direction to formalise a circular economy is not too different. Recent endeavours including the planning of a National Resource Efficiency Policy (NREP) and a National Resource Efficiency Authority centre on efficiency improvements in production and waste management, with modest insight into system-wide implementation and change (MoEFCC, 2019).

Our research in India found that most of the existing policy frameworks addressed the downstream of the plastic value chain, that is, the consumption, waste generation, and resource recovery phases. We identified the need for upstream efforts for sustainable production and reduction and the expansion of alternatives to single-use plastics. For example, standards for products to use secondary material and recycled content, and policies to promote redesigning of plastic products to enable efficient recycling and reuse, are needed. Similarly, incentives, regulations, and fiscal measures that may drive the reduction of virgin fossil-based polymers and promote the use of biopolymers and secondary plastics in products are needed. We also note that Extended Producer Responsibility mechanisms in India are weak, and that Green Public Procurement is another area that merits urgent attention, supported by policies and efficient data management systems to strengthen the role of government in fostering circular economy practices.

The informal sector's role in India's plastic waste collection systems is not fully recognised. Existing regulations direct municipalities to include informal waste collectors in the waste management system. However, there is no provision to compensate the informal sector for their work and the recognition of the informal waste recycling sector’s economic contribution is weak (Singh, 2020). The formalisation of the informal sector in solid waste management through institutions such as resident welfare associations, community-based organisations, non-government organisations, self-help groups, and the private sector will help to lower overall municipal solid waste management costs, support the local recycling industry, and create new job opportunities (CPHEEO, 2016).

In the next stage of this research, we are currently undertaking stakeholder interviews to better understand the implementation and effectiveness of notable policies for the circular economy for plastics in India. In particular, we are investigating the enablers, barriers, and gaps for advancing a circular economy for plastics in India. The main stakeholder groups we are interviewing represent national government organisations and policymakers, think tanks, community organisations, state and local government departments, industry representative bodies, and academia. The insights from the interviews will help inform our evaluation of policy effectiveness in India. We have adopted six criteria from the environmental policy design effectiveness framework by Dovers and Hussey (2013) to evaluate the effectiveness of plastic-related policy frameworks and institutions in India. These criteria are: i) efficiency in achieving outcomes; ii) corrective action focus; iii) systemic potential; iv) flexibility; v) complexity and cross-sectoral influence; and vi) equity implications.