The
Indian brick industry is primarily an
informal, or
unorganised sector, comprising more than 100,000 brick kilns operating
in Through the introduction of Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln (VSBK) technology, the energy and environment performance of brick manufacturing units, especially the traditional clamps, can be improved significantly. This technology is both cleaner and consumes significantly lower fuel than the clamp technology, which is commonly used by the brick manufacturers. The VSBK technology was originally invented in China. It has been adapted to the Indian conditions and has proven to be technically and commercially feasible. However, the capital investment requirements and operational sophistication have created a perception among brick manufactures that the technology is risky. These issues have raised significant barriers, preventing the technology from penetrating into the market. Any VSBK plant qualifies as a small scale CDM project, as per the definition of a small scale CDM project and its simplified modalities and procedures. In order to reduce the transaction costs and to maximise the returns to the entrepreneurs, a bundling approach can be followed in compliance with the rules prescribed by the CDM Executive Board. Through this approach, a technology that is superior in terms of resource conservation and reduced environmental pollution, as compared to the prevalent technologies, can be promoted. Additionally, the environmental and social benefits of the project are further enhanced by a specific community benefit programme that can be implemented in order to meet the requirements of the Community Development Carbon Fund (CDCF) of the World Bank. The project thus contributes to sustainable development. Type of Technology for Small Scale Project Activity Brick making in India is usually a clustered activity, with several brick units existing in a single cluster. The clusters are characterised by access to easy availability of soil and coal and proximity to the large brick markets such as the urban centres. These clusters usually run into several kilometres of radius around the urban and peri-urban areas. One of the unique characteristics of these clusters is the smoky environment. VSBKs set up in these clusters stand out distinct due to their design and operational procedures and have a unique identification.
A brick manufacturing facility
has primarily two key processes: i) Producing green bricks (clay bricks before firing are called ‘green bricks’), ii) Sintering/firing of the green bricks. The sintering process requires thermal energy inputs, wherein inefficient technologies are used at present. As part of the project activity, energy efficient measures in the form of VSBK technology will be introduced for the brick sintering process. Given that the amount of energy consumed per production of one unit of fired clay brick, using VSBK is lower as compared to the present technologies, the introduction of VSBK will lead to substantial energy savings in the brick manufacturing facilities. The total amount of energy saving by the project is estimated as the difference in the thermal energy consumption of the VSBK technology and that of the technology that otherwise would have been used to manufacture burnt clay bricks. The VSBK technology will require a thermal energy input of about 0.84 Mega Joules/kg brick (2.18 Mega Joules/brick) compared to 2.0 Mega Joules/kg brick (5.2 Mega Joules/brick) that is presently required in the baseline technology. The aggregated energy saving by the 14 plants in the project is estimated to be about 21.66 GWh per year, assuming full capacity utilization of all the plants. This is below 45 GWh, i.e. the threshold for saving in thermal energy inputs for small scale projects falling into the II D category. Emission Reduction Potential In the geographical clusters where the project activities are being implemented, burnt clay bricks are manufactured using a technology with a lower thermal performance leading to a higher amount of coal combustion and hence significant CO2 emissions. The energy efficient VSBK technology reduces the quantity of coal required to be combusted to produce an equivalent amount of bricks and hence reduces the emissions of CO2. Brick making is traditionally a polluting activity. Regulations have been introduced in the country with a view to reduce pollution from the brick units. For instance, there are regulations which require the brick units to comply with certain emission stand Movable Chimney Bull Trench Kin (MCBTK), a technology commonly used for small and medium scale brick production, has been banned nationwide due to its polluting nature. However, no mandated thermal performance standards (or energy efficiency levels) are set for the brick industry. VSBK is a new technology in India and requires higher capital investments compared to the commonly used clamp technology. The capital investment requirements and operational sophistications have both created a perception among brick manufactures that the technology is risky. These issues have raised significant barriers preventing the technology from penetrating into the market and making it a common practice. In the absence of any mandatory requirement on thermal performance, and in the absence of availability of any option that has commercial advantages, the use of the clamp technology is expected to continue for manufacturing burnt clay bricks, resulting in higher CO2 emissions. Emission reductions to be achieved by the project through implementation of VSBK technology at 14 different locations are estimated to be about 60,554 tonnes of CO2 equivalent over a nine year period, assuming full capacity utilization of all the plants. The project is expected to achieve GHG emission reductions of approximately 58,923 tonnes of CO2 equivalent in ten years of operation of 14 VSBK plants at different locations. Baseline and its Development Since the project activity sets up new brick making facilities, the energy use of the brick making facilities that would otherwise have been built and operated in absence of the VSBK plant is considered to represent the energy baseline. The brick making facilities that would otherwise have been built in the clusters, where project interventions are made, are those using the clamp technology. The energy consumption of these clamps is therefore considered the baseline energy consumption. This is done by first identifying all potential options for brick making in India and then narrowing down the options that are most likely to be operating in the clusters where project interventions are made. Although both clamps and MCBTKs are considered to be highly polluting, regulations have so far been directed only towards the MCBTKs. The main reasons for not bringing the clamps under the purview of the regulation appear to be the difficulty in enforcement due to their large number and their relatively shorter life span at a given location and the prolific use of clamps by traditional brick making communities. Further, the clamps are seen as a very important avenue of livelihoods for rural brick making communities and agencies such as the Khadi Village Industries Boards at the state levels continue to finance setting up of clamps. Based on this, it is reasonable to conclude that clamps will continue to operate and proliferate in the future as they are unaffected by rules and regulations. The existing MCBTKs, however, will gradually disappear. Energy Baseline
This project reduces thermal
energy inputs into the brick production activity. Based on the
methodology, category II, D
Emission Baseline Coal is the main source of energy used for firing bricks in India. The next choice of fuel is biomass, including fuelwood. In one of the studies undertaken by the FAO, the use of fuel wood in the entire brick industry in the country is reported to be only 300,000 tonnes/year, while the use of coal is reported to be about 14,000,000 tonnes/year. Thus use of fuel wood represents a very tiny fraction (much less than two percent in terms of energy inputs) of the total energy requirement of the brick industry in all of India. Since the values reported in the FAO report do not distinguish between the renewable biomass and non-renewable biomass, the actual fraction of renewable biomass (with zero emission) is likely to be lower. The baseline emission is estimated by multiplying the “energy use” with the emission factor of the energy source. The source of energy for firing bricks in the geographical clusters where the project activities are located is predominantly bituminous coal. Therefore, the IPCC default value of 25.8 tC/TJ has been considered for the carbon emission factor. It is also difficult to undertake ex-post monitoring of the actual usage of biomass in the clamps operated by brick manufacturers. As the clamp owners do not benefit from the project, there is little incentive for them to measure and record data pertaining to their fuel use. Further, the clamp owners usually do not operate on scientific principles. Feeding rate of fuel is often decided visually through the experience of the fire masters rather than through measurements. In the absence of systematic and scientific monitoring over a reasonable period of time, sufficient enough to account for seasonal variations in fuels etc. (which will be cost prohibitive), the level of uncertainty associated with the data could be very high. It is therefore proposed to fix the biomass usage in baseline conservatively at five percent of the total energy input for all the areas included in the project, which is higher than the national average figure of less than two percent, reported in the FAO report. In light of the above assumptions, the baseline emissions are adjusted appropriately by multiplying with a “biomass adjustment factor” (0.95 = 1- 0.05). The baseline emission is thus expected to be conservative. The total emissions from the baseline scenario is expected to be 12,043 tons of CO2 equivalent per annum for the 14 plants included in the project, assuming full capacity utilization of all the plants. Anthropogenic Emissions of GHG A small-scale CDM project activity is additional if anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases by different sources are reduced below the level that would occur in the absence of the registered project activity and also when the project activity is facing one or more barriers. There are various documentary analysis of the existence of several issues which make the VSBK technology appear most unattractive to brick manufacturers. Given these high barriers, in the absence of the project activity it is expected that brick manufacturers will continue to use the clamp technology, even though it requires a significant input of thermal energy for brick burning. The project activity would therefore result in lower CO2 emissions as compared to the level of CO2 emissions that would occur if an equivalent amount of burnt clay bricks were to be manufactured using the clamp technology. The project activity should therefore be considered additional. As already mentioned, VSBK is a new technology and it has yet to penetrate the Indian market so far. Out of more than 100,000 brick kilns operating in the country, only around 30 kilns use the VSBK technology. The number is negligible considering the fact that introduction of VSBK in the country commenced in the year 1995. Impacts of Project Implementation Environmental Impact Assessment study is not required for the brick plants in India. However, a brief analysis of the positive and negative impacts of the project is provided here. Improvement of Air Quality VSBK as a technology is much less emissive while considering not only GHG emissions but also in terms of SPM, SOx, NOx etc. The fuel used in VSBK is powdered coal and only a small amount of ash comes out as waste particles due to the complete burning of coal. The emission standards for VSBK have been drafted by CPCB and are likely to be published within 2005. Till now, the standards set primarily for the Bull Trench Kilns are still being used. While only the best BTKs are able to achieve the standards set for their pollution levels, the emissions from VSBK constructed and operated so far are well within the prescribed limits. The stack emission levels observed for different VSBKs in various geographical zones are in the range of 80mg/Nm3 to 250 mg/Nm3: with an average of 170 mg/Nm3 , based on a detailed study carried out on behalf on the Central Pollution Control Board of India. These emission levels of VSBK are much less than the emission standards currently prescribed for any type of kiln. These results are in agreement with the monitoring carried out by Development Alternatives. Unquestionably, the stack emission for VSBK is considerably lower than BTK under diverse Indian conditions. Energy Efficiency VSBK is about 30% energy efficient as compared to traditional kilns by technological design. Therefore, it requires less fuel. Moreover, it allows the use of low grade fuels such as lignite and causes an increase in the use of discarded wastes. This is good for the environment, resulting in better quality and higher profits. Reasonable Resource Utilisation VSBK takes less space than other kilns, hence preserving land and vegetation. The usage of soil is reduced by utilizing various industrial wastes such as fly ash, stone dust etc. The inherent property of less resource use for VSBK directly contributes to the socio-economic and environmental benefits. Other Impacts Although VSBK is better than other technologies, both in terms of efficiency and environmental protection, it still requires resources such as clay, leading to soil degradation. The fast depletion of arable land thus caused due to brick making is a matter of grave concern in India. In addition, considerable amount of water is also used for brick production. Another negative environmental impact is the exposure of workers. They are also exposed to a high concentration of Respirable Suspended Particulate Matters (RSPM), during monitoring and regulating the fire, as the furnace chamber is covered with ash, which is scattered to improve insulation of the top surface. After the Government Notification of making the fly ash utilization mandatory by law, the work force gets exposed to a high concentration of RSPM while carrying out manual mixing. Soil and fly ash exposure also occurs due to the open dumping and storage of fly ash. q |
small clusters in rural and peri-urban areas of the country. The choice
of technology for firing of bricks depends generally on factors such as
the availability of soil and fuel, market conditions and availability of
skills. Due to their simplicity in operation and low capital investment
requirements, the conventional technologies, such as the clamps,
continue to be the brick manufacturers’ preferred option. However, the
energy demand of this technology is high, representing 35-50% of the
total production costs.
:
“Energy efficiency and fuel switching measures for industrial
facilities”, the energy baseline of this project activity is the thermal
energy consumption by the technology that would have otherwise been used
to manufacture bricks in those clusters where the project interventions
are made. The energy consumption of the clamps is considered as the
baseline energy consumption. The energy consumption of clamps is
reported to be 2.0 Mega Joules/kg brick. The “annual output of each VSBK
plant (bricks/year)” is multiplied with the above “specific energy
consumption (MJ/kg )” (of Clamps) and the “weight of each brick (kg)” to
arrive at the “annual energy consumption (MJ)” in the baseline scenario.