Wetlands And Climate Change
Wetlands
are the ecotones or transitional zones between permanently aquatic and
dry terrestrial ecosystems. According to Wetlands International, a
global network working on wetlands, the wetlands are: “Areas on which
water covers the soil or if water is present either at or near the
surface of that soil. Water can also be present within the root zone,
all year or just during various periods of time of the year.” The Ramsar
Convention on Wetlands further goes on to specify “wetlands as areas
both natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is
static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine
water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres”,
including lakes and rivers, swamps, fens and marshes, wet grasslands and
peat lands, oases, estuaries, deltas and tidal flats, near-shore marine
areas, mangroves and coral reefs, and human-made sites such as fish
ponds, rice paddies, reservoirs, and salt pans.
Wetlands can be classified as inland and coastal areas. India is home to
a variety of wetlands from the mangroves of Sunderbans to the Rann of
Kutch; from Wullar Lake in Jammu and Kashmir to the back waters of
Kerala. There are 25 Ramsar sites, spread across 677.13 hectares. Two of
these, i.e. Keoladeo National Park and Loktak Lake are under the
Montreux records indicating areas that need immediate attention due to
the changes in ecological character that have occurred, are occurring,
or are likely to occur as a result of technological developments,
pollution or other human interference. ‘The National Wetland
Conservation Programme’ enlists 68 wetlands.
Wetlands provide services for human survival and development. They
provide food and water, purify water, export and retain sediments and
nutrients, replenish groundwater, control floods, stabilise shorelines,
and protect shorelines from storms. Wetlands mitigate climate change and
can offer adaptation measures. They are also a home to a wide range of
biodiversity. Besides economic and biological services, wetlands also
offer cultural values, recreation and tourism benefits.
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The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, called by the Ramsar Convention, is an inter-governmental treaty that provides the framework for national action and international co-operation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. It got its name from the Iranian City of Ramsar, where it was signed in 1971 by 160 parties across the myriad geographic regions of the world. The wise use of wetlands is defined as "the maintenance of their ecological character, achieved through the implementation of ecosystem-friendly approaches, within the context of sustainable development". The convention covers 1911 wetlands of international importance covering 186.9 million hectares. |
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On a
global scale, wetlands provide services worth trillions of US dollars
every year, contributing to human health and environmental well-being. A
recent study on the role of coastal wetlands in reducing the severity of
impacts from hurricanes in the United States found that they provided
storm protection services with an estimated value of US$ 23.2 billion
per year. The conversion or loss of one hectare of coastal wetland
resulted in the loss of ecosystem services worth US$33,000 per year, on
an average. Past studies show that in the long run, the value of
converting Thai mangroves to shrimp farms, draining freshwater marshes
for intensive agriculture in Canada, and operating unsustainable fishing
practices on coral reefs in the Philippines, was between 60 per cent and
75 per cent lower than the benefits from wetland conservation and
sustainable use. |
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Peat Land Restoration in Germany Over 930,000 hectore unit of peat land in Germany has been drained to increase the area available for agricultural production. The carbon sink has been transferred into a carbon source – emitting around 20 million tCO2-equivalents every year. Lowering of the water table and tillage has destroyed these areas of high biodiversity with valuable ecosystem services (water storage and purification, the fixation of nutrients and pollutants, and the sequestration and storage of carbon). The release of nutrients and pollutants from drained peat land decreases water quality and causes eutrophication of rivers and lakes. Between 2000 and 2008, 10 per cent area of drained peat land was restored. Emissions of about 300,000 tCO2-equivalents every year are avoided. When assuming a marginal cost of damage caused by carbon emissions of 70 € per tCO2, the effort to restore peat lands avoids damage from carbon emissions of up to 21.7 million € every year, on average 728 € per hectare of restored peat land. While the total damage costs of carbon emissions on drained peat land can exceed 1400€ per hectare, the process of revitalising peat land requires considerable initial investment. The initial cost of restoration ranges between 3000 - 5000 € per hectare in cases where land is purchased from farmers. The prices for avoided emissions ranges between 30 € to 50 € per avoided tCO2-equivalent. This is a low price compared to other emission reduction strategies, which can be reduced even further if restored peat land are used for alternative land uses that do not degrade the carbon stock. Further, it is important to consider the cost of forgone income from conventional agriculture (an average 585 € per hectare per year in 2007/2008 and foregone subsidies (which often exceed an additional 300 € per hectare) and which are directly attributable to number of hectares. Subsidised income from conventional agriculture not only provides incentives for harmful land use – but makes rehabilitation more costly (as reflected in the land price). Alternative land uses on restored peatlands can generate income as well as avoid carbon emissions, thereby lowering opportunity costs. (TEEB Case Study) |
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Despite
their overwhelming values, wetlands are among the most highly threatened
ecosystems on the planet. They are very vulnerable to climate change.
Glaciers that feed many of the world’s major river and wetland systems
will shrink due to melting. Many semi-arid areas are particularly
exposed to the impact of climate change and are expected to suffer
serious pressure on water resources and wetlands. Changes in
precipitation patterns and increased frequency and intensity of freak
events like droughts, storms and floods can influence the eco-systems.
Higher water temperatures, floods and droughts, will reduce water
quality and worsen many forms of pollution. The effects of climate
change on wetlands will in turn affect the continued provision of the
eco-system services. |
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Conserving wetlands through microfinance programmes, India East Kolkata Wetlands (EKW) is a threatened Ramsar site in West Bengal spread across 136 sq. Km. Water flows through wetlands’ mosaic of fishponds, lakes, swamps and canals that cover 4000 ha and acts as solar reactors to treat 880 million litres sewerage each day. These waste water fishponds also sustain the livelihood of 90,000 odd fishermen, surviving below the poverty level. EKW, is mostly considered as a sewerage dumping ground with no awareness about its environmental importance amongst the stakeholders. A conservation partnership has been successfully developed through this project based on community-ecosystem approaches in the area. The whole community shares the responsibility of validating and evaluating the scheme, thus they are a part of the decision-making system in an adaptive project management. The formation of Self Help Groups that SAFE could establish with the supports from National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) has further strengthened this project. The fisherwomen have been exposed to training and visit programmes and young men have been trained with marketing skills. This capacity building has brought confidence. TATA-AIG Group has designed a micro insurance scheme for the people so that the little contribution remains an investment and the premium money is returned with bonus on completion of the tenure of the insurance in case even there is no claim for accidental benefits. Other corporates are also getting involved on the site. The revenue collected from eco-tourism would be an alternative economic opportunity for sustenance. A portion of the excess revenue would go for premium of group micro-health insurance coverage for the wetlanders, who struggle in stinking sewerage waters for their livelihood and produce fish for the metropolis. The innovation is that here environmental awareness would explicitly act as a marketing tool for the revenue generation system and Bio-rights acted as an incentive for conservation. The strategy for influencing public management aspect was in developing a win-win situation by assuring revenue returns from nature services/resources? (TEEB Case study) |
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Adaptation means
action to minimise the adverse impact of climate change. Coastal and
floodplain wetlands help limit the damage from floods that are expected
to become more frequent with the impending climate change. Mangroves,
tidal flats and salt marshes absorb energy from storm and tidal surges,
while the roots of wetland plants stabilise shorelines and reduce
erosion. Lakes and freshwater marshes naturally store and slow down
floodwater, helping to protect downstream areas from destructive
flooding. Conservation and sustainable use of wetlands in semi-arid
regions can help people and wildlife to survive periods of drought.
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